Legitimacy of Smart Contracts from the Perspective of Islamic Law: A Case Study of Blockchain Transactions
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.29240/jhi.v9i1.8726Keywords:
Islamic law, blockchain, cryptocurrency, smart contractAbstract
Blockchain smart contracts is a digital program based on the blockchain design that accommodates certain data stored in their internal logic. The decentralized nature of this technology prevents unauthorized access. This technology require the use of cryptocurrencies to be effectively utilized as a medium of exchange. While cryptocurrencies have received wide recognition as an improvement to modern business transactions. However, in the Muslim communities, Muslim scholars have divergent views on the permissibility and prohibition of cryptocurrencies on certain grounds. Islamic law is characterized by outstanding flexibility that enables it to keep pace with the development of time and place, and gives it the validity to interact to address emerging issues that stand in people's way. This study aims to examine blockhain smart contracts, how they work, the religious ruling surrounding its permissibility. As well as the consensus of Muslim Scholars on its usage by Muslim communities. The study adopts qualitative doctrinal, library based or normative judicial research to analyze blockchain smart contracts and their suitability and compatibility with Islamic law. By examining the law from the perspective of social reality, the researchers qualitatively analyzed the concept of Smart contracts within the boundaries of law and its application under Islamic law. Delving into deductive reasoning and conclusions based on consensus of scholars. This study found that blockchain smart contracts falls within the permissibility principle, The Maliki school sale on credit and negotiations under the ijtihadi perspective. This research suggests the need for further study to shed light on this new type of contract to support its acceptability among Muslim communities.
Downloads
References
Abdeldayem Marwan Mohamed, Al Dulaimi Saeed Hameed and Al Dulaini Fuaad Hameed, â€A qualitative approach to evaluate the reconciliation of GOLDX and OnegRam in Islamic Finance†Original Scientific Paper, 1 vol. 39, p 113 – 134 (2021), https://doi.org/10.180 45/zbefri.2021.1.113..
Abdulloh Hamid, Anis Fittria, Ubbadul Adzkiya and Santi Andriyani, “Bitcoin as a means of transaction and investment in the perspective of Islam†Iqtishoduna: Jurnal Ekonomi Islam, 2 vol. 10, p 33 – 48 (2021). https://ejournal.iaisyarifuddin.ac.id/index.php/iqtishoduna
Abddul Ghofur Anshori and Yulkarman Harahab, Hukum Islam Dinamika Dan Perkembangannya Di Indonesia. Yogykarta: Kreasi Total Media, 2008 p 202.
Abidin, Ibn. Radd Al-MuhtÄr 'Ala Al-Durr Al-MukhtÄr 2ed. Vol. 4, Beirut: Dar Al-Fikr, Beirut, 1992.
Abdullah Ayedh, Omar Mohammed Mispah Said and Echchabi Abdelghani, “Factors influencing Bitcoin investment intention: The case of Oman†International Journal of Internet Technology and Secured Transactions, 1 vol. 11, p 1 - 15 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1504/IJITST.2021.112897.
Adzimatinur Fauziyah, Manula Vigory Gloriman and Rahimi Faishal, “The Sharia compliance of Gold-backed-cryptocurrency: Analysis of volatility and risk†European Union Digital Library, (2021), https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.12-12-2020.2304995.
Agnikhotram, Sai, and Antonios Kouroutakis. "Doctrinal Challenges for the Legality of Smart Contracts: Lex Cryptographia or a New, Smart Way to Contract." Journal of High Technology Law 19 (2018): 312.
Ahmad Kameel Mydin Meera, “Cryptocurrencies from Islamic perspective: The case of Bitcoin†Buletin Ekonomi Moneter Dan Perbankan, 4 vol. 20, 475 – 492 (2018).
Abulfathi Ibrahim Saleh Al-Hussaini, Adamu Abubakar, Mohamad Fauzan Noordin and Hazwani Mohd Mohadis, “Users perception of cryptocurrency system application from the Islamic views†International Journal on Islamic Applications in Computer Science and Technology, 1 vol. 7, p 13 – 25 (2019).
Al-Aini, Badr Al-Din. The Building in Explaining Guidance. Edited by Ayman Saleh Shaaban. 1 ed. Vol. 6, Beirut, Lebanon: House of scientific books, 2000.
Alaklabi Saad and Kang Kyeong, “Perceptions towards cryptocurrency adoption: A case of Saudi Arabian citizens†IBIMA Business Review (2021), https://doi.org/10.5171/2021.110411.
Al-Dabyan, Abu Omar Dabyan bin Muhammad. Financial Transactions, Authenticity and Modernity. 2 ed. 20 vols. Vol. 1, Riyadh - Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: King Fahad National Library, 2010.
Al-Gammal, Muhammad Mahmoud. "Smart Electronic Mediator from the Perspective of Islamic Jurisprudence." International Islamic Jurisprudence Assembly conference, Dubai, Islamic Affairs & Charitable Activities Department & Government of Dubai, 2019.
Al-Ghazi, Muhammad Sidqi Al-Borno Abu Al-Harith. Encyclopedia of Jurisprudential Rules. 1 ed. Vol. 1, Beirut, Lebanon: Al-Resala Foundation, 2003.
al-Hamawi, Shihab al-Din. Winking Eyes of Insight in Explaining Similarities and Counterparts. 1 ed. Lebanon: House of Scientific Books, 1985.
Al-Hunaiti, Hanaa Muhammad Hilal. "Concept of Smart Contracts." International Islamic Jurisprudence Assembly conference, Dubai, Islamic Affairs & Charitable Activities Department, 2019.
A-Hussaini Nigeria, Ibrahim Adamu Abubakar, Noordin Mohamad Fauzen and Mohadis Hazwani Mohd, “Islamic approach towards purification of transaction with cryptocurrency†Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, 6 vo. 68, p 1050-1067 (2020).
Al-Jamili, Omar. "Smart Contracts, Their Reality and Their Relationship to Virtual Currencies." International Islamic Jurisprudence Assembly conference Dubai, Dubai, Islamic Affairs & Charitable Activities Department & Government of Dubai, 2019.
Al-Kassani, Aladdin. Bada'i' Al-Sana'i' in the Order of Sharia. Beirut: Arab Book House,Beirut, 1982.
Al-Omari, Munther Qahf & Muhammad Al-Sharif. "Smart Contracts." International Islamic Jurisprudence Assembly conference, Dubai, Islamic Affairs & Charitable Activities Department & Government of Dubai, 2019.
Aloui Chaker, Hamida Hela ben and Yarovaya Larisa, â€Are Islamic gold-backed cryptocurrencies different?†Finance Research Letters, 39 (2021), https://doi.org/10.10 16/j.frl.2020.101615.
al-Suyuti, Jalal al-Din. Similarities and Isotopes. 1 ed. Syria: House of Scientific Books, 1990.
Al-Zahili, Muhammad Mustafa. Jurisprudential Rules and Their Applications in the Four Schools of Thought. 1 ed. Vol. 1, Damascus, Syria: Dar Al-Fikr, 2006.
Al-Zahli, Wahba bin Mustafa. Islamic Jurisprudence and Its Comprehensive Evidence of Sharia Evidence Sectarian Opinions, the Most Important Jurisprudential Theories, and the Verification and Graduation of the Prophet’s Hadiths. Syria, Damascus: Dar Al-Fikr, 1997.
Al-Zarqa, Mustafa. Sales Contract. 2 ed. Damascus, Syria: Dar Al-Qalam, 2012.
Alharby, Maher, and Aad Van Moorsel. "Blockchain-Based Smart Contracts: A Systematic Mapping Study." Computer Science & Information Technology (CS & IT) (2017): 128. https://doi.org/10.5121/csit.2017.71011
"State-by-State Smart Contract Laws? If It Ain't Broke, Don't Fix It." CoinDesk, 2018, https://www.coindesk.com/markets/2018/02/26/state-by-state-smart-contract-laws-if-it-aint-broke-dont-fix-it/.
Arcari, Jared. "Decoding Smart Contracts: Technology, Legitimacy, & Legislative Uniformity." Fordham Journal of Corporate & Financial Law 24, no. 2 (2019): 366-88.
Atiyah, Ghassan Adhab, Nazura Abdul Manap, and Saidatul Nadia Abd Aziz. "Legal Status of Cryptocurrency Circulation in Iraq: Lessons from the United Arab Emirates and the United States." Hasanuddin Law Review 9, no. 1 (2023): 3. https://doi.org/10.20956/halrev.v9i1.3867.
Azlin Alisa Ahmad, Mat Nooor Mat Zain and Nur Diyana Amanina Zakaria, “A comparative analysis of smart contract and Islamic contracts†International Journal of Advanced Research, 8(10) p 316-325 (2020). https://do.org/10.21474/ijar01/11859.
Az Azrinuddin, Abdo Ali Abdullah and Zamri Yusoof, “Overview of blockchain implementation on Islamic fiancé: Saadiqin experience†Cyber Resilience Conference (CRC), p 1 -2 (2018).
"Congress Has Now Introduced 32 Crypto and Blockchain Bills." Forbes, 2020, https://www.forbes.com/sites/jasonbrett/2020/04/28/congress-has-introduced-32-crypto-and-blockchain-bills-for-consideration-in-2019-2020/?sh=b21e3891d617.
Consulting Capgemini, Smart contracts in financial services: Getting from hype to reality. Capgenimi Consulting, p 1-14 (2016).
Chaisse, Julien, and Jamieson Kirkwood. "Smart Courts, Smart Contracts, and the Future of Online Dispute Resolution." Stanford Journal of Blockchain Law & Policy 5 (2022): 8. https://stanford-jblp.pubpub.org/pub/future-of-odr.
Charles W. Evans, “Bitcoin in Islamic Banking and finance†Journal of Economics and Finance, 1 vol. 3, p 1 - 11 (2015).
Chong Felicia Hui Ling, “Enhancing trust through digital Islamic finance and blockchain technology†Qualitative Research in Financial Markets, 3 vol. 13, p 328 -341 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1108/QRFM-05-2020-0076.
Debono, Pauline. "Transforming Public Procurement Contracts into Smart Contracts." International Journal of Information Technology Project Management (IJITPM) 10, no. 2 (2019): 18. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJITPM.2019040103.
Dell’Erba, M. "Do Smart Contracts Require a New Legal Framework." Regulatory Fragmentation, Self-Regulation, Public Regulation (2018): 33.
Dhiaeddine Rajeb, “Smart contracts contributions to Mudaraba†Tazkia Islamic Fiance and Business Review (TIFBR), 15.1 P 1- 18 (2021).
Dobinson Ian and Johns Francis, “Legal research as qualitative research†Research Methods for Law, p 18–47 (2017).
Dodik Siswantoro, Rngga Handika and Aria Farah Mita, “The requirement of cryptocurrency for money, an Islamic view†Heliyon, 1 vol. 6, p e0p3235 (2020).
Earls, J, M Smith, and R Smith. "Smart Contracts: Is the Law Ready?". Chamber of Digital Commerce (2018): 59. https://lowellmilkeninstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Smart-Contracts-Whitepaper.pdf.
Eenmaa-Dimitrieva, Helen, and Maria José Schmidt-Kessen. "Creating Markets in No-Trust Environments: The Law and Economics of Smart Contracts." Computer law & security review 35, no. 1 (2019): 75-85. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2018.09.003.
Fadad, Al-Ayashi Al-Sadiq. "Smart Contracts." International Islamic Jurisprudence Assembly conference, Dubai, Islamic Affairs & Charitable Activities Department & Government of Dubai, 2019.
Fatarib Husnul and Sali Merison Alizar, ryptocurrency and digital money in Islamic Law: Is it right?†Jurisdictie: Jurnal Hukum dan Syariah, 2 vol. 2, p 237 - 261 (2021). https://doi.org/10.18860/j.v11i2.8687.
Ferreira, Agata. "Regulating Smart Contracts: Legal Revolution or Simply Evolution?". Telecommunications Policy 45, no. 2 (2021): 10 -11. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2020.102081.
Flossi, Sanaa Rahmani & Masoud. "The Role of Jurisprudence Rules in Smart Contract Arbitration." El Ihyaa 22, no. 30 (2022): 231-34.
Gapur Oziev and Magomet Yandiev, “Cryptocurrency from a Shari’ah perspective†Al-Shajarah: Journal of the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC), 2 vol. 23, 315 – 338 (2018).
Geranio, Manuela. "Fintech in the Exchange Industry: Potential for Disruption." Masaryk University Journal of Law and Technology 11 (2017): 247. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5817/MUJLT2017-2-3. Ghulam Zainil, “Apikasi Ijma’ Dalam Prakik Ekonomi Syariah†Iqtishodun ,1 Vol. 7, p 87 – 116 (2018).
Giancaspro, Mark. "Is a ‘Smart Contract’ Really a Smart Idea? Insights from a Legal Perspective." Computer Law & Security Review 33 (06/01 2017): 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2017.05.007.
Hamid Abdul Gafar, Fittria Anis, Adzkiya Ubbadul and Santi Andriyani, “Bitcoin as a means of transaction and investment in the perspective of Islam†IQTISHODUNA: Journal Ekonomi Islam, 2 vol. 100, p 944 (2021), https://do.org/10.36835/iqtishoduna.v1oi2.944.
Hanif Muhammad, “Developing a fair currency system†ISRA International Journal of Islamic Finance, 3 Vol. 2, p 325 - 345 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJLF-02-2019-0024.
Huasheng Zhu and Zach Zhizhong Zho, “Analysis and outlook of applications of blockchain technology to equity crowdfunding in China†Financial Innovation, 1 vol. 2, p 29 – 36 (2016).
Hutchinson Terry and Duncan Nigel, “Defining and describing what we do: doctrinal legal research†Deakin Law Review, 17 vol. 1, p 83–119 (2012).
Ilinka Atova and Tahar Tayachi, “Blockchain and smart contracts: A risk management tool for Islamic fiancé†Journal of Islamic Finance Studies, 5.1 p 29-45 (2019). https://doi.org/10.12785/jifs/050103.
Jasperse, Joseph. "50-State Review of Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Regulation." Available at SSRN 4146004 (2022): 17.
Khoirul Anwar, in Teddy Kusuma, “Cryptocurrency for commodity futures trade in Indonesia: Perspective of Islamic Law†Journal of Islamic Banking and Finance, Jan – Mar (2020).
Kristian Lauslahti, Juri Mattila and Timo Seppala, “Smart contracts. How will blockchain technology affect contractual practices?†SSRN Electronic Journal, 68 (2018). https://do.org/10.2139/ssrn.3154043.
Lacasse, Richard-Marc, Berthe Lambert, and Nida Khan. "Blockchain Technology-Arsenal for a Shariah-Compliant Financial Ecosystem." Journal of Business and Economics (2017): 6.
Lucero MA.G, R., Cryptocurrencies regulation in the Islamic environment: OneGram case study†Journal of Sociology of Religion, 1 vol. 11, p 1-9.
Lung, S. (2008). The Problem Method: No Simple Solution. Willamette L. Rev., 45, 723.
Maher Alharby and Aad van Morsel, “Blockchain based smart contracts: A systematic study†Computer Science & Information Technology (CS & IT), October, p 125 – 40 (217). https://doi.orrg/10.5121/csit2017.71011.
Malik, Malik bin Anas bin. Selected for Explanation of Al-Muwatta. Edited by 1. Vol. 5, Egypt: Happiness Press, 1913.
Mik, Eliza. "Smart Contracts: A Requiem." Journal of Contract Law, Forthcoming (2019): 13.
Mohamed Cherif El Amri, Mustafa Omar Mohammed and Ruslan Sabizyanov, “The potential of smart contracts for Murabahah home financing: Towards an integrated modelâ€. In Finteech, Digital Currency and the Future of Islamic Finance, Palggrame Machmillan, Cham, p 49 – 76 (2021).
Mohamed Cherif EL Amri and Mustafa Omar Mohammed, “The analysis of cryptocurrency based on Mqasid al-Shari’ah. In Halal cryptocurrency Management. Palgrave Macmillan Shan, 20 19 p 119 – 131.
Mohd Noh Mohd Shahid and Abu Bakar Mohammed Syakir., “Cryptocurrency as a main currency: A Maqasidic approach†Al-Uqud: Journal of Islamic Economics, 1 vol. 4, p 115 - 132 (2020), https://doi.org/10.26740/al-uqud.v4n1.p115-132.
Mnif Emna and Jarboui Anis, “Islamic view towards Bitcoinâ€, European Journal of Islamic Finance, p 1 -8 (2020); Shetwey Nsreen, Laadam Jamal Ait and Li Jun Jiang, “Challenges of the Bitcoin in Arab Countries†Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, (2019), https://doi.org/10.7176/rhss/9-5-01.
Mufti Muhammad Abu-Bakar, “Sharia analysis of Bitcoin, cryptocurrency, and blockchain†Working Paper (2017). https://blossomfinance.com/bitcoin-working-paper.
Muhammad Faruq, Omar Bamahiz, Aishath Muneeza and others, “Application of Tawaruq in Islamic banking in Malaysia: Towards smart tawaraqâ€, International Journal of Management and Applied Research (IJMAR), 7.2, 100 – 113 (2020).
Muhammad Izzul Syahmi Zulkepli, Mohammad Taqiuddin Mohamad, and Saaidal Razali Azzuhri, “Leveraging blockchain-based smart contract in Islamic financial institutions: Issue and relevant solution†International Journal of ISLAMIC Finance Research, 6.1 p 18-29 (2023). http://doi.org/10.53840/ijiefer96
Munawar, Munawar. "The Legality of Smart Contract in the Perspectives of Indonesian Law and Islamic Law." Al-Istinbath: Jurnal Hukum Islam 7, no. 1 May (2022): 266-67. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.29240/jhi.v7i1.4140.
Mustafa Raza Ribbani, Shahnawaz Khan and Eleftherios I. Thalassinos, “FinTech, Blockchain and Islamic Finance: An extensive literature review†International Journal of Economics and Business Administration, 2 vol. VIII, p 65 – 86 (2020).
Nashirah Abu Bakar, Sofian Rosbi and Kiyotaka Uzaki, “Cryptocurrency framework diagnostics from Islamic finance perspective: A new insight of Bitcoin system transaction†International Journal of Management Science and Business Administration, 1 vol. 4, p 19 - 24 (2017).
Nida Laili Fitriyah et al., “Foreign direct investment flows in OIC country†Iqtishoduna: Jurnal Ekonomi Islam, 2 vol. 9, p 217 (2020). https://ejournal.iaisyarifuddin.ac.id/index.php/iqtishoduna/article/view/495.
Niforos Maria, Ramachandran Vijaya and Rehermann Thomas, Blockchain: Opportunities for private enterprises in emerging market. Washington DC, International Finance Corporation, 2017. Https://oenknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10p986/28962.
Nikos Kakadimitriou and Thanos Pagonis, “Planning reform and development rights in Greece: Institutional persistence and elite rule in the face of the crisesâ€, European Planning Studies, 27 vol. 1 p 1217-1234 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2019.1579300.
Nughroho Bayu Adi, “Spillovers and bivariate portfolios of gold-backed cryptocurrencies and gold during the Covid-19 outbreak†Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research, 7 vol. 12, p 1055 -1076 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1108/JIABR-10-2020-0328.
Othman Roslina, Mohamad Fauzan Noordin, Mahfooz Ahmed, Nadzrah Ahmad and Kassim Salina, “Muslim Scholars and Exerts views on cryptocurrencies: A systematic review†Sains Insani, 1 vo. 8, p 94 – 102, (2023).
Polas Mohammed Rashed Hasan, Md Muhibbullah and Bhattacharjee Amitab, “Is Bitcoin Halal or Haram in the Islamic Banking and finance? An overview†Journal of Economics, Business and Market Research, 2 vol. 2 p 96 – 104 (2020).
Rahman Naim Abdul, “Cryptocurrency from the perspective of Shari’ah†in Al-Shajarah University Utara Malaysia, (2021). Https://www.academia.edu/4195474//Cryptocurrency_from_the_persective_of_Sharia’h..
Ranmbir Singh, GS Bajpai and Manish Singh, “Research methodology: Qualitatiev andQuantitative methods in research†Production for Courseware, p 1-12 (2008). https://epgp.inflibner.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/law/09_research_methodology/08_qualitative_and_doctrinal_methods_in_research/et/8155_et_et.pdf.
Richard-Marc Lacasse, B. Lambert and Nida Khan, â€Islamic Banking-Towards a Blockchain monitoring process†Revue de Gestion et d’Economic, 1 & 2 vol. 6, p 33 - 46 (2018).
Sami and Abdallah “How does the cryptocurrency market affect stock market performance in the MENA region?†Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, 4 vol.37, p 741 – 753 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1108/JEAS-07-2019-0078.
Sanjay Kumar Verma and Afzal Wani (eds.), Legal research methodology. Indian Law Institute New Delhi 2nd editioon, 2001, p 656-657.
Sano, Qutb Mustafa. "Smart Contracts in Light of Principles, Purposes and Outcomes Analytical Vision." International Islamic Jurisprudence Assembly conference, Dubai, Islamic Affairs & Charitable Activities Department & Government of Dubai, 2019.
Schär, Fabian. "Decentralized Finance: On Blockchain-and Smart Contract-Based Financial Markets." Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, no. 1 (2021): 154. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.20955/r.103.153-74.
Siti Rohaya and others, “Artificial intelligence, smart contracts and Islamic FINANCEâ€, Asian Social Science, 18(2), p 145 (2018). https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v14n2p145.
Sudias Asif, “The Halal and Haram aspects of cryptocurrencies in Islam†Journal of Islamic Banking and Finance: Global Perspective on Islamic Finance, 2 vol. 35 p 91 – 101 (2018).
Szabo, Nick. "Smart Contracts: Building Blocks for Digital Markets." EXTROPY: The Journal of Transhumanist Thought,(16) 18 (1996): 2.
Taghdiri Ali, “Assessing the compatibility of cryptocurrencies and Islamic law†Intellectual Property and Technology Law Journal, 25, p63 (2020.
Teddy Kusuma, “Cryptocurrency for commodity futures trade in Indonesia: Perspective of Islamic Law†Journal of Islamic Banking and Finance, Jan – Mar (2020).
Temte, Morgan N. "Blockchain Challenges Traditional Contract Law: Just How Smart Are Smart Contracts." Wyoming Law Review 19 (2019): 98-99. https://scholarship.law.uwyo.edu/wlr/vol19/iss1/7.
Utamchandani Tulsidas, Tanash. Smart Contracts from a Legal Perspective. University of Alicante (2018). file:///C:/Users/mega/%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%88%D8%AF%20%D8%B0%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%87/Smart_Contracts_from_a_Legal_Perspective_Utamchandani_Tulsidas_Tanash.pdf.
Virgana Targa Sapanji and Mohd Haizam Mohd Sadi, “Conceptual research: Sharia-based cryptocurrency†Journal of Advanced Research in Dynamical and Control Systems, 3 Special vol. 11, 138 – 143 (2019).
"Wyoming’s Pro-Blockchain Laws Tame the Wild West of Crypto." Sygna, 2023, https://www.sygna.io/blog/wyomings-pro-blockchain-laws-tame-cryptos-wild-west/.
Wright, Aaron. Smart Contracts†& Legal Enforceability Cardozo Law School (October 16, 2018 October 16, 2018).
Yusof bin Faizal Mohd, Rasid Ab Lisasari and Masri Rid zuan, “Implementation of Zakat payment platform for cryptocurrencies†AZKA International Journal of Zakat & Social Finance, 1 vol. 2, p 17 -31 (2021), httpsâ€//doi.org/10.51377/azjaf.vol2no1.41.
Yuneline Mirza Hedismarlina, “Analysis of cryptocurrency’s characteristics in four perspective†Journal of Asian Business and Economic Studies, 2 vol. 26, p 206 – 219 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1108/jabes-12-2018-0107.
Zahra, Muhammad Abu. Property and Contract Theory in Islamic Law. Egypt: Dar Al-Fikr Al-Arabi, 1996.
Zaki, Mahmoud Jamal al-Din. The Summary in the General Theory of Obligations. 1978. Egypt.
Zou, Weiqin, David Lo, Pavneet Singh Kochhar, Xuan-Bach Dinh Le, Xin Xia, Yang Feng, Zhenyu Chen, and Baowen Xu. "Smart Contract Development: Challenges and Opportunities." IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering 47, no. 10 (2019): 2084-106.
Zulfikri Auwal Adam Sa’ad, Salina Kassim and Anwar Hassan Abdullah Othman, “Trust enhancement in Zakat institutions using Blockchain technology: A qualitative approachâ€, European Journal of Islamic Finance, 31 – 37 (2022). Htts://oi.org/10p.13135/24.
"4 Blockchain Bills Introduced in New York Legislature." CoinDesk, 2021, https://www.coindesk.com/markets/2017/12/04/4-blockchain-bills-introduced-in-new-york-legislature/
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Citation Check
License
Authors who publish with Al-Istinbath : Jurnal Hukum Islam agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a CC BY-SA 4.0 Deed | Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International | Creative Commons (CC BY-SA 4.0) that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
.jpg)
