KASHF AS COMPLEMENTARY EPISTEMOLOGY: REASSESSING AL-GHAZĀLĪ IN ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Abstract
This study discusses the tendency of contemporary scholarship to reduce kashf to merely an intuitive or psychological experience, thereby overlooking its epistemological significance in Islamic philosophy of science. Its aim is to critically reassess the position of kashf in al-Ghazālī's epistemology and to construct a complementary epistemological framework related to modern scientific observation. This research employs a qualitative philosophical approach using Gadamerian hermeneutics, focusing on the interpretative analysis of al-Ghazālī's works, namely al-Munqidh min al-Ḍalāl and Iḥyā’ ‘Ulūm al-Dīn, and situating them in a dialogue with contemporary philosophy of science. The analysis involves three stages: text interpretation, epistemological comparison, and conceptual synthesis. Findings show that kashf in al-Ghazālī's framework functions not only as mystical intuition but also as a structured epistemic mode based on spiritual discipline, inner verification, and moral purification. This study indicates that kashf complements empirical observation by overcoming its limitations in accessing metaphysical dimensions, while maintaining its own criteria of internal validity. Based on this, the study formulates a complementary epistemological model consisting of three integrated domains: empirical (sensory observation), rational (intellectual reasoning), and intuitive-transcendental (kashf). This model provides a more comprehensive epistemological framework that allows dialogue between Islamic intellectual tradition and modern science, particularly in expanding the scope of valid knowledge beyond empirical reductionism.
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References
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Afabih, A., & Junianto, V. (2022). Examining Ibn Arabi’s Kashf Method on the Authenticity of Hadith. Jurnal Studi Ilmu-Ilmu Al-Qur’an Dan Hadis, 23(1), 111–124. https://doi.org/10.14421/qh.2022.2301-06
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Asyibli, B., Ibtihal, A. A., Fauzan, M. F., Fauzi, A., & Hidayat, W. (2025). Epistemological Dimensions in Islamic Educational Philosophy: A Critical Analysis. Journal of Islamic Education Research, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.35719/jier.v6i1.464
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Coates, A. (2021). The prevalence of philosophical assumptions described in mixed methods research in education. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 15(2), 171–189.
Erdoğan, İ. H., & Eryücel, S. (2024). The Concept of Divine Revelation According to Ibn Sînâ and Al-Ghazālī: A Comparative Analysis. Religions, 15(11), 1383. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111383
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Gadamer, H.-G. (2004). Truth and Method (J. Weinsheimer & D. G. Marshall (trans.); Edisi Kedu). Continuum.
Gama, C. B. (2016). Posisi Tasawuf Teoretis dalam Tinjauan Logika Tafsir Al-Quran. Tanzil: Jurnal Studi Al-Quran, 1(2), 121–141. https://doi.org/10.20871/tjsq.v1i2.150
Haraway, D. (1988). Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective. Feminist Studies, 14(3), 575–599. https://doi.org/10.2307/3178066
Harding, S. G. (1986). The Science Question in Feminism. Cornell University Press.
Hasan, A. (2012). Menyusuri Hakikat Kebenaran: Kajian Epistemologi atas Konsep Intuisi dalamTasawuf al-Ghazali. At-Ta’dib, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.21111/at-tadib.v7i2.71
Hasib, K., & Khasanah, N. U. (2025). The Integration of Rationality and Spirituality: Imam Al-Ghazali’s Experience through Ta’lim Rabbani Approach in Acquiring Knowledge. Afkaruna: Indonesian Interdisciplinary Journal of Islamic Studies, 21(1), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.18196/afkaruna.v21i1.25377
Hasib, K., Zarkasyi, A. F., & Muslih, M. K. (2024). Intuition According to Imam al-Ghazali and It’s Role as Methods of Acquiring Knowledge. KALAM, 18(1), 81–106. https://doi.org/10.24042/002024181880100
Husni, A. S., Bahar, M. S., & Harnadi, D. (2025). Purifying the Heart, Unveiling the Truth: Understanding Al-Ghazālī’s Epistemology. Journal of Pesantren and Diniyah Studies, 2(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.63245/jpds.v2i1.32
Iftikhar, L., Rabia, S., & Sadia. (2024). Islamic and Scientific Epistemology: A Comparative Study. Quarterly Research Journal Al-Qudwah, 2(4).
Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Second Edi). The University of Chicago Press.
Kusuma, K. A. (2024). An Assessment of Empirical Thinking in Islam. Indonesian Journal of Islamic Studies, 12(3). https://doi.org/10.21070/ijis.v12i3.1729
Lumbard, J. E. B. (2024). Islam and the Challenge of Epistemic Sovereignty. Religions, 15(4), 406. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15040406
Maulud, A., & Syaifuddin, H. (2025). Sayyed Hossein Nasr’s Critique of Modernity: The Perspective of Perennial Philosophy and Its Relevance to Contemporary Islamic Thought. An-Nida’, 49(1). https://doi.org/10.24014/an-nida.v49i1.36482
McIntosh, C. (1988). The Structure of Empirical Knowledge. Teaching Philosophy, 11(2), 181–183. https://doi.org/10.5840/teachphil198811256
Naguib, S. (2021). Islam and the Epistemic Politics of Gender. American Journal of Islam and Society, 38(1–2). https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v38i1-2.2966
Nasr, S. H. (1989). Knowledge and the Sacred. State University of New York Press.
Putra, B. I., Husni, H., & Wahyuni, S. (2025). Epistemological Differences in Islam: Traditional, Rational, and Sufistic Approaches. Journal Research of Social Science, Economics, and Management, 4(12), 2393–2401. https://doi.org/10.59141/jrssem.v4i12.943
Renaldi, A. (2025). Al-Ghazali’s Intuitive Epistemology: A Critique of Western Epistemology. Indonesian Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science and Technology, 3(6), 675–694. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.55927/marcopolo.v3i6.78
Settler, F. (2025). Religious Complexity in Postcolonial South Africa: Contending with the Indigenous. Religions, 16(1), 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010060
Syafaq, H., Hilmy, M., Musyafaah, N. L., & Ali, M. R. A. A. (2023). Reconstructing Islamic Epistemology: Bridging Metaphysics, Reason, and Revelation. Teosofi: Jurnal Tasawuf Dan Pemikiran Islam, 14(2), 240–269. https://doi.org/10.15642/teosofi.2024.14.2.240-269
Taslim, I. (2025). Peran Empirisme dalam Membentuk Modernitas Ilmu Humaniora. Indonesian Research Journal on Education, 5(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31004/irje.v5i1.1621
Ula, M. (2025). The Epistemology of Knowledge in Classical Sufism; A Study of Al-Muḥāsibī’s Thought (781 AD- 857 AD). Millati: Journal of Islamic Studies and Humanities, 10(1), 126–146. https://doi.org/10.18326/millati.v10i1.3185
Vera, S., & Hambali, R. Y. A. (2021). Aliran Rasionalisme dan Empirisme dalam
Kerangka Ilmu Pengetahuan. Jurnal Penelitian Ilmu Ushuluddin, 1(2), 59–73. https://doi.org/10.15575/jpiu.12207
Wahyudi, W. (2018). Epistemologi Tafsir Sufi Al-Ghazali dan Pergeserannya. Jurnal Theologia, 29(1), 85–108. https://doi.org/10.21580/teo.2018.29.1.2070
Walid, K. Al, Darmawan, D., Barra, N. U. H. D., & Norman, N. A. (2023). Al-’Ilm Al-Ḫudhūri: Philosophical Epistemology and Sufism Common Ground. Jurnal Fuaduna : Jurnal Kajian Keagamaan Dan Kemasyarakatan, 7(2), 111. https://doi.org/10.30983/fuaduna.v7i2.7348
Zacky, M. F. M., & Moniruzzaman, M. (2024). ‘Islamic Epistemology’ in a Modern Context: Anatomy of an Evolving Debate. Social Epistemology, 38(4), 511–525. https://doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2023.2227945
Afabih, A., & Junianto, V. (2022). Examining Ibn Arabi’s Kashf Method on the Authenticity of Hadith. Jurnal Studi Ilmu-Ilmu Al-Qur’an Dan Hadis, 23(1), 111–124. https://doi.org/10.14421/qh.2022.2301-06
Al-Aidrus, M. A. (2018). Osman Bakar. Tahwid and Science: Islamic Perspectives on Religion and Science (2nd Edition). Kuala Lumpur: Arah Publications, 2008. KATHA- The Official Journal of the Centre for Civilisational Dialogue, 4(1 SE-Review Paper), 127–131.
Al-Attas, S. M. N. (1995). Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam: An Exposition of the Fundamental Elements of the Worldview of Islam. ISTAC.
Al-Ghazālī, al-I. A. Ḥamid. (1995). Iḥyā ’Ulūm al-Dīn (Vol. 1). Dār al-Ma’rifah.
Al-Ghazali, A. H. (2020). Pembebas dari Kesesatan (Al-Munqid Minad Dhalal) (B. Achmad (trans.)). Al-Muqsith Pustaka.
Al Haidary, A. H., Al Faruqi, A. R. H., Shofwan MF, A., & Maafi, R. H. (2024). Islamic Worldview as a Basis for Islamization of Science Concept According to Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas. KALAM, 18(1), 19–36. https://doi.org/10.24042/002024181145700
Anam, A. (2022). Konsep Ilmu Menurut Al-Ghazali Perspektif Filosofis: Aspek Ontologi, Epistemologi, Aksiologi. PROGRESSA: Journal of Islamic Religious Instruction, 6(2), 19–36. https://doi.org/10.32616/pgr.v6.2.420.19-36
Arif, S., Hasib, K., Abidin, Z., & Khasanah, N. U. (2020). Epistemologi dan Teologi dalam Pemikiran al-Ghazali tentang Ilmu Kasyf. TSAQAFAH, 16(2). https://doi.org/10.21111/tsaqafah.v16i2.4765
Asyibli, B., Ibtihal, A. A., Fauzan, M. F., Fauzi, A., & Hidayat, W. (2025). Epistemological Dimensions in Islamic Educational Philosophy: A Critical Analysis. Journal of Islamic Education Research, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.35719/jier.v6i1.464
Atmaja, L., & Mustopa, R. R. B. C. (2020). Metaphysics in the Epistemology : A Critical Analysis of Islamic and Western Philosophical tradition. Afkaruna, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.18196/AIIJIS.2020.0111.22-39
Aziz, H. (2022). Epistemology of the Integration of Religion and Science Qur’anic Perspective. Tribakti: Jurnal Pemikiran Keislaman, 33(2), 239–264. https://doi.org/10.33367/tribakti.v33i2.2833
Bowden, B. G. (2019). Empiricism, Epistemology and Modern Postmodernism: a Critique. Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal, 14(4), 481–497. https://doi.org/10.1108/QROM-02-2019-1726
Chittick, W. C. (2010). The Sufi path of knowledge: Ibn al-ʿArabi’s metaphysics of imagination. State University of New York Press.
Chittick, W. C. (2011). Reason, Intellect, and Consciousness in Islamic Thought. In Reason, Spirit and the Sacral in the New Enlightenment (pp. 11–35). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9612-8_2
Coates, A. (2021). The prevalence of philosophical assumptions described in mixed methods research in education. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 15(2), 171–189.
Erdoğan, İ. H., & Eryücel, S. (2024). The Concept of Divine Revelation According to Ibn Sînâ and Al-Ghazālī: A Comparative Analysis. Religions, 15(11), 1383. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111383
Feyerabend, P. (1970). Materialism and the mind—body problem BT - The Mind-Brain Identity Theory: A Collection of Papers Compiled Edited and Furnished with an Introduction by (C. V Borst (ed.); pp. 142–156). Macmillan Education UK. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-15364-0_15
Gadamer, H.-G. (2004). Truth and Method (J. Weinsheimer & D. G. Marshall (trans.); Edisi Kedu). Continuum.
Gama, C. B. (2016). Posisi Tasawuf Teoretis dalam Tinjauan Logika Tafsir Al-Quran. Tanzil: Jurnal Studi Al-Quran, 1(2), 121–141. https://doi.org/10.20871/tjsq.v1i2.150
Haraway, D. (1988). Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective. Feminist Studies, 14(3), 575–599. https://doi.org/10.2307/3178066
Harding, S. G. (1986). The Science Question in Feminism. Cornell University Press.
Hasan, A. (2012). Menyusuri Hakikat Kebenaran: Kajian Epistemologi atas Konsep Intuisi dalamTasawuf al-Ghazali. At-Ta’dib, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.21111/at-tadib.v7i2.71
Hasib, K., & Khasanah, N. U. (2025). The Integration of Rationality and Spirituality: Imam Al-Ghazali’s Experience through Ta’lim Rabbani Approach in Acquiring Knowledge. Afkaruna: Indonesian Interdisciplinary Journal of Islamic Studies, 21(1), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.18196/afkaruna.v21i1.25377
Hasib, K., Zarkasyi, A. F., & Muslih, M. K. (2024). Intuition According to Imam al-Ghazali and It’s Role as Methods of Acquiring Knowledge. KALAM, 18(1), 81–106. https://doi.org/10.24042/002024181880100
Husni, A. S., Bahar, M. S., & Harnadi, D. (2025). Purifying the Heart, Unveiling the Truth: Understanding Al-Ghazālī’s Epistemology. Journal of Pesantren and Diniyah Studies, 2(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.63245/jpds.v2i1.32
Iftikhar, L., Rabia, S., & Sadia. (2024). Islamic and Scientific Epistemology: A Comparative Study. Quarterly Research Journal Al-Qudwah, 2(4).
Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Second Edi). The University of Chicago Press.
Kusuma, K. A. (2024). An Assessment of Empirical Thinking in Islam. Indonesian Journal of Islamic Studies, 12(3). https://doi.org/10.21070/ijis.v12i3.1729
Lumbard, J. E. B. (2024). Islam and the Challenge of Epistemic Sovereignty. Religions, 15(4), 406. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15040406
Maulud, A., & Syaifuddin, H. (2025). Sayyed Hossein Nasr’s Critique of Modernity: The Perspective of Perennial Philosophy and Its Relevance to Contemporary Islamic Thought. An-Nida’, 49(1). https://doi.org/10.24014/an-nida.v49i1.36482
McIntosh, C. (1988). The Structure of Empirical Knowledge. Teaching Philosophy, 11(2), 181–183. https://doi.org/10.5840/teachphil198811256
Naguib, S. (2021). Islam and the Epistemic Politics of Gender. American Journal of Islam and Society, 38(1–2). https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v38i1-2.2966
Nasr, S. H. (1989). Knowledge and the Sacred. State University of New York Press.
Putra, B. I., Husni, H., & Wahyuni, S. (2025). Epistemological Differences in Islam: Traditional, Rational, and Sufistic Approaches. Journal Research of Social Science, Economics, and Management, 4(12), 2393–2401. https://doi.org/10.59141/jrssem.v4i12.943
Renaldi, A. (2025). Al-Ghazali’s Intuitive Epistemology: A Critique of Western Epistemology. Indonesian Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science and Technology, 3(6), 675–694. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.55927/marcopolo.v3i6.78
Settler, F. (2025). Religious Complexity in Postcolonial South Africa: Contending with the Indigenous. Religions, 16(1), 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010060
Syafaq, H., Hilmy, M., Musyafaah, N. L., & Ali, M. R. A. A. (2023). Reconstructing Islamic Epistemology: Bridging Metaphysics, Reason, and Revelation. Teosofi: Jurnal Tasawuf Dan Pemikiran Islam, 14(2), 240–269. https://doi.org/10.15642/teosofi.2024.14.2.240-269
Taslim, I. (2025). Peran Empirisme dalam Membentuk Modernitas Ilmu Humaniora. Indonesian Research Journal on Education, 5(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31004/irje.v5i1.1621
Ula, M. (2025). The Epistemology of Knowledge in Classical Sufism; A Study of Al-Muḥāsibī’s Thought (781 AD- 857 AD). Millati: Journal of Islamic Studies and Humanities, 10(1), 126–146. https://doi.org/10.18326/millati.v10i1.3185
Vera, S., & Hambali, R. Y. A. (2021). Aliran Rasionalisme dan Empirisme dalam
Kerangka Ilmu Pengetahuan. Jurnal Penelitian Ilmu Ushuluddin, 1(2), 59–73. https://doi.org/10.15575/jpiu.12207
Wahyudi, W. (2018). Epistemologi Tafsir Sufi Al-Ghazali dan Pergeserannya. Jurnal Theologia, 29(1), 85–108. https://doi.org/10.21580/teo.2018.29.1.2070
Walid, K. Al, Darmawan, D., Barra, N. U. H. D., & Norman, N. A. (2023). Al-’Ilm Al-Ḫudhūri: Philosophical Epistemology and Sufism Common Ground. Jurnal Fuaduna : Jurnal Kajian Keagamaan Dan Kemasyarakatan, 7(2), 111. https://doi.org/10.30983/fuaduna.v7i2.7348
Zacky, M. F. M., & Moniruzzaman, M. (2024). ‘Islamic Epistemology’ in a Modern Context: Anatomy of an Evolving Debate. Social Epistemology, 38(4), 511–525. https://doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2023.2227945
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